為政第二

2.1 子曰：“為政以德，譬如北辰，居其所而眾星共之?！?/p>

The Master said, “To rule by virtue is like the way the North Star rules, standing in its place with all the other stars revolving around it and paying court to it.”

“政”，即“正”，意思是“正其身”。孔子在12.17中說(shuō)：“子帥以正，孰敢不正？”清代學(xué)者宋翔鳳寫道，一個(gè)真正的君王“上承天之所為”，其權(quán)威來(lái)自德。但君王不是天，而是人。一個(gè)人即便生而有仁，也要努力“下以正其所為”來(lái)養(yǎng)成德。許多學(xué)者遵循漢代經(jīng)學(xué)家包咸的解釋，認(rèn)為這種為政之道相當(dāng)于“無(wú)為”而治。另一些學(xué)者的觀點(diǎn)是，“為政以德”是“有為”，只是“有為如無(wú)為也”。因此，即便是舜這樣“無(wú)為而治”的賢君，也要“恭己正南面而已”。

2.2 子曰：“《詩(shī)》三百，一言以蔽之，曰‘思無(wú)邪’?！?/p>

The Master said, “The three hundred poems from the Book of Poetry could be summed up in a single phrase: “They never swerve from the path [思無(wú)邪].”

孔子所言“思無(wú)邪”引自《詩(shī)經(jīng)》第297篇《魯頌·駉》。詩(shī)中描繪了在野外驅(qū)駕馬群的動(dòng)作——雖然“以車彭彭/以車/以車?yán)[繹/以車祛祛”，但“思無(wú)邪”。一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為“思無(wú)邪”是“志無(wú)虛邪”的意思，在我看來(lái)，這種觀點(diǎn)不僅沒有呼應(yīng)原詩(shī)，還丟失了孔子學(xué)說(shuō)中很重要的一點(diǎn)：人的天性充滿活力，在人生之路上疾馳時(shí)，也需要鞭策和駕馭。《論語(yǔ)》3.20中，孔子借由對(duì)愛情詩(shī)《關(guān)雎》的解讀，闡述了“思無(wú)邪”的觀點(diǎn)。公元前三世紀(jì)的儒家荀子提出相似的觀點(diǎn)，他說(shuō)：“《國(guó)風(fēng)》之好色也，《傳》曰：‘盈其欲而不愆其止?！?/p>

2.3 子曰：“道之以政，齊之以刑，民免而無(wú)恥。道之以德，齊之以禮，有恥且格?！?/p>

The Master said, “If you guide the people with ordinances and statutes and keep them in line with [threats of ] punishment, they will try to stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame. If you guide them with exemplary virtue [德] and keep them in line with the practice of the rites [禮], they will have a sense of shame and will know to reform themselves.”

2.3延伸自2.1，但此處的君王不像北辰那樣僅居于一處，以德為政：對(duì)于人民，他還要“齊之以禮”。在孔子眼中，西周的封建分封制與理想政治極為接近。周天子憑借既有的權(quán)力分封諸侯，為初肇的王朝開辟新的封地，治國(guó)的基礎(chǔ)是君王的道德及其與諸侯間的信任。禮樂教化進(jìn)一步鞏固國(guó)家，因此無(wú)須繁瑣的律法就可以使民“齊之”。

2.4 子曰：“吾十有五而志于學(xué)，三十而立，四十而不惑，五十而知天命，六十而耳順，七十而從心所欲不逾矩?！?/p>

The Master said, “At ?fteen, I set my heart on learning. At thirty, I found my balance through the rites. At forty, I was free from doubts [about myself ]. At ?fty, I understood what Heaven intended me to do. At sixty, I was attuned to what I heard. At seventy, I followed what my heart desired without overstepping the line.”

這是孔子自述其精神之所至，從志于學(xué)開始，終至從心所欲之境。在此歷程中，他通過(guò)學(xué)禮而達(dá)到自立，進(jìn)而放下他對(duì)自身可能存在的懷疑，并理解了天命。因此，當(dāng)他最后全然從心所欲時(shí)，也可以“思無(wú)邪”。正如無(wú)為是治國(guó)之道的極致，這段話也揭示了道德的最高境界。

2.5 孟懿子問孝。子曰：“無(wú)違?！狈t御，子告之曰：“孟孫問孝于我，我對(duì)曰，無(wú)違?！狈t曰：“何謂也？”子曰：“生，事之以禮。死，葬之以禮，祭之以禮。”

Meng Yizi asked about being filial. The Master responded, “Do not abandon [無(wú)違][the rites].”

When Fan Chi was driving the chariot, the Master told him about this conversation, saying, “Mengsun asked me about filiality,and I replied, ‘Do not abandon [the rites].’”

Fan Chi asked, “What did you mean by that?”

The Master said, “When your parents are alive, observe the rites in serving them; when they die, observe the rites in burying them; observe the rites in sacrificing to them.”

孟懿子是魯國(guó)三桓之一孟孫氏的后人，其先祖公子慶父是魯莊公的兄弟。孟懿子和孔子的關(guān)系難以遽定。一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為他是孔子的弟子，另一些則認(rèn)為他是孔子的政敵，挫敗了孔子推翻魯國(guó)三桓的計(jì)劃，間接導(dǎo)致他周游列國(guó)。樊遲是孔子較年輕的弟子，以勇武知名的戰(zhàn)士?！蹲髠鳌酚涊d，公元前484年，孔子結(jié)束周游回到家鄉(xiāng)前不久，樊遲和另一個(gè)弟子冉求率領(lǐng)魯軍戰(zhàn)勝齊軍。

“無(wú)違”一詞有點(diǎn)問題，若是命令，則缺少對(duì)象；放在孟懿子提問的語(yǔ)境，其含義可能是“無(wú)違其父母之命”，但這顯然不是孔子的原意?？鬃訉?duì)樊遲所說(shuō)的“孝”是指：對(duì)父母“事生”“葬死”“追祭”時(shí)，不可違禮。在之后的2.6、2.7、2.8三章中，可以更清晰和具體地認(rèn)識(shí)禮和孝的關(guān)系。

2.6 孟武伯問孝。子曰：“父母唯其疾之憂。”

Meng Wubo asked about being ?lial. The Master said, “Give your parents no cause for worry other than your illness.”

孟武伯是2.5中提到的孟懿子的兒子。對(duì)此句的解讀，我采取一世紀(jì)的經(jīng)學(xué)家馬融之說(shuō)：“孝子不妄為非，惟有疾病然后使父母憂耳?！睎|漢王充、高誘則提出不同的解釋，認(rèn)為“人子憂父母之疾為孝”。這兩種解讀都有道理，但馬融詮釋的“孝”較難理解，因此更為人關(guān)注。

2.7 子游問孝。子曰：“今之孝者，是謂能養(yǎng)。至于犬馬，皆能有養(yǎng)。不敬，何以別乎？”

Ziyou asked about being ?lial. The Master said, “Nowadays this is taken to mean being able to feed your parents. But dogs and horses can do as much. If you are not respectful, how are you different?”

子游是孔子較年輕的一位弟子。他出現(xiàn)在《論語(yǔ)》卷十九中，這表明他可能是《論語(yǔ)》的編纂者之一?？鬃釉u(píng)價(jià)說(shuō)“文學(xué)：子游、子夏”，但從19.12可以看出，孔子歿后，兩人產(chǎn)生分歧。子游批評(píng)子夏的教學(xué)忽略本原，僅僅著重于旁枝末節(jié)。子夏則認(rèn)為子游未分清楚傳授學(xué)問的先后主次。

包咸指出，此章第三句的意思可能是“犬以守御，馬以代勞，皆養(yǎng)人者”，即犬馬也能養(yǎng)人，也可能是犬馬也得人之養(yǎng)。兩種解讀都合理，不過(guò)大多數(shù)注疏都遵循第一種解釋（也是我的解讀），而朱熹評(píng)注和大多數(shù)英文翻譯都參照第二種。伯頓·華茲生（Burton Watson）這樣闡釋：“But we do as much for dogs and horses as well. If there is no reverence, how is it any different?”

2.8 子夏問孝。子曰：“色難。有事，弟子服其勞。有酒食，先生饌。曾是以為孝乎？”

Zixia asked about being filial. The Master said, “The dif?cult part is the facial expression. As for the youngsters taking on the burden when there is work to be done and the older ones being served ?rst when there is food and wine, can this be called ?lial conduct?”

漢代經(jīng)學(xué)家包咸認(rèn)為“色”代表父母臉上的神色——人子時(shí)刻留意父母的神色、觀察其悅和不悅、體會(huì)其意愿，是件難事。另一位漢代學(xué)者鄭玄則認(rèn)為“色”即人子的神色——侍奉父母時(shí)，時(shí)常保持和顏悅色，只有真正的孝子才能做到。

2.9子曰：“吾與回言終日，不違，如愚。退而省其私，亦足以發(fā)，回也不愚?！?/p>

The Master said, “I can speak to Hui all day, and he does not disagree with me or question what I said. Thus it seems as though he were stupid. But afterward, when I observe what he does on his own, I realize that he is able to give full play to what he has learned.Hui is not stupid at all.”

回，就是顏回，孔子最喜愛的弟子。他安靜、謙遜，就連孔子一開始都疑心他是不是遲鈍不善思考。但當(dāng)孔子深入體察后，他發(fā)現(xiàn)顏回傾向于“默而識(shí)之”，爾后私下實(shí)踐所學(xué)。在9.11中，顏回曾感嘆，即便有夫子的教導(dǎo)和鼓勵(lì)，對(duì)知識(shí)的追尋仍然何其困難。

2.10 子曰：“視其所以，觀其所由，察其所安。人焉廋哉？人焉廋哉？”

The Master said, “Observe [視] what a person does. Look into [觀] what he has done [由]. Consider [察] where he feels at home. How then can he hide his character?”

盡管孔子很少對(duì)他人遽下論斷，他仍認(rèn)為了解一個(gè)人的本質(zhì)是可能且有益的。他還鼓勵(lì)弟子們省察自己（正如孔子省察自身），將自己的長(zhǎng)處同了解的人加以比較。

傳統(tǒng)注疏指出了“視”和“觀”的區(qū)別，劉寶楠還提出“察”在《說(shuō)文》中的含義是“覆審也”。這些注疏都同意“由”字涉及過(guò)去的經(jīng)歷或“前日所行事”。

2.11 子曰：“溫故而知新，可以為師矣?！?/p>

The Master said, “A person is worthy of being a teacher if he is able to gain new insights from chewing over what he already knew.”

“溫故”的字面含義是“保持對(duì)已知事情的熱度”?！翱梢詾閹煛保瑒t指學(xué)習(xí)新知時(shí)還能牢記舊學(xué)的人，或溫習(xí)已有學(xué)問時(shí)還能開悟新意的人。

2.12 子曰：“君子不器?！?/p>

The Master said, “The gentleman [ 君子 ] is not a vessel [ 器 ].”

君子精神寬廣，心智敏銳，可以解決不同的問題，而且“無(wú)所不施”，因此不是僅作專門用途的“器”。大多數(shù)注疏都這樣詮釋。十八世紀(jì)的思想史家章學(xué)誠(chéng)則從另一角度理解“器”的含義。章學(xué)誠(chéng)說(shuō)，孔子的每一位弟子都從老師那里習(xí)得一些東西，并放入器中；弟子想要傳授給自己學(xué)生的，就是放在器中的事物。但這僅代表對(duì)孔子學(xué)說(shuō)的一種具體解讀，如果其他弟子不贊同這種解讀，就會(huì)發(fā)生紛爭(zhēng)，甚至延及后世。章學(xué)誠(chéng)引19.3中子張和子夏的弟子的紛歧作為早先的例子，又引十二世紀(jì)朱熹學(xué)派和陸象山學(xué)派之間的門戶之爭(zhēng)作為其后的例子。然而君子不應(yīng)這樣：他歡迎激烈的辯論，且一開始就不會(huì)將自己視作器——有限知識(shí)的容器。

2.13 子貢問君子。子曰：“先行其言，而后從之?！?/p>

Zigong asked about the gentleman. The Master said, “He?rst puts his words into action. He then lets his words follow his action.”

一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為，句讀不同，解讀也不同：“先行，其言而后從之?！睙o(wú)論哪一種解讀，孔子的言論在《禮記》中都有很好的詮釋：“故君子寡言，而行以成其信，則民不得大其美而小其惡?！?/p>

2.14 子曰：“君子周而不比，小人比而不周?！?/p>

Confucius said , “ The gentleman [君子 ] is fair-minded and generous; he is not partisan or divisive. A petty man [ 小人 ] is partisan and divisive; he is not fair-minded or generous.”

這里首次將“小人”一詞作為“君子”的對(duì)立面。劉寶楠指出，“小人”可能是“微賤之人”或“無(wú)德之人”，此處孔子的意思是第二種。多數(shù)注疏認(rèn)為君子能“親愛人”，因?yàn)樗男袨椤爸髦倚拧?。小人則“利己”，且“引黨以封己”，不利于公眾利益。2.14、2.12及2.13為我們描繪出君子的基本特征：寬厚公正；言行忠信；且不“器”。

2 .15 子曰：“學(xué)而不思則罔，思而不學(xué)則殆?！?/p>

The Master said, “If you learn but do not think, you will be dazed. If you think but do not learn, you will be in danger.”

劉寶楠按照兩位儒家先哲孟子和荀子的思想解讀第一句話。《孟子·告子上》第15節(jié)：“心之官則思，思則得之，不思則不得也?！避髯釉凇秳駥W(xué)》中寫道：“君子之學(xué)也，入乎耳，箸乎心，布乎四體，形乎動(dòng)靜。端而言，蝡而動(dòng)，一可以為法則。小人之學(xué)也，入乎耳，出乎口；口耳之間則四寸耳，曷足以美七尺之軀哉？”

對(duì)第二句話的解讀，劉寶楠引述孔子的原話：“吾嘗終日不食，終夜不寢，以思，無(wú)益，不如學(xué)也。”

2.16 子曰：“攻乎異端，斯害也已。”

The Master said, “To pursue strange theories or to get sidetracked in your studies can only bring harm.”

此處孔子的話不易理解，因?yàn)椤爱惗恕币辉~在公元前四世紀(jì)之后就指“他技”/“小道”。孟子視楊朱和墨翟的學(xué)說(shuō)為邪說(shuō)。宋儒也將佛教和道教視作異端。但若這樣解讀2.16，就有顛倒時(shí)代的問題了。在魏代學(xué)者何晏看來(lái)，孔子并不認(rèn)為求學(xué)之道只有一種途徑。何晏的解釋是“善道有統(tǒng)，殊途而同歸。異端，不同歸者也”。其他的評(píng)注指出，19.4中子夏有言，認(rèn)為“異端”的意思可能是“小道”，亦有其可觀之處，但會(huì)讓人在學(xué)問上偏離正道或停滯不前?！肮ァ弊忠残枭倘??！肮ァ钡囊馑伎梢允恰肮シァ被颉肮プx、研習(xí)”。將“攻”理解為“攻伐”的人這樣解讀：“謂攻其異端，使吾道明，則異端之害人者自止?！钡硪恍W(xué)者，譬如焦循就認(rèn)為恰好相反：“蓋異端者各為一端，彼此互異，惟執(zhí)持不能通則悖，悖則害矣?！?/p>

2.17 子曰：“由！誨女知之乎！知之為知之，不知為不知，是知也?！?/p>

The Master said, “You, do you know what I have been trying to teach you? To say that you know something when you know it and to say that you do not know something when you do not know it——this is true knowing [ 知 ].”

對(duì)第一句話的不同理解有“You, shall I tell you what it means to know something?”，以及“You, pay close attention to what I am going to teach you.”由，即子路，在孔子離開魯國(guó)前，他是孔子的弟子和政治盟友。子路僅比孔子小九歲，以勇敢和忠誠(chéng)著稱。但他容易生氣，行事沖動(dòng)?？鬃釉谶@里的教導(dǎo)理應(yīng)是針對(duì)他而言。荀子在《子道》一文中對(duì)2.17加以闡發(fā)，而在《儒效》中的解釋則更為深刻。談到“雅儒”——有教養(yǎng)而且深知禮節(jié)的人——荀子說(shuō)，“知之曰知之，不知曰不知，內(nèi)不自以誣，外不自以欺”。有關(guān)2.17中孔子對(duì)子路的教導(dǎo)，荀子認(rèn)為，子路除了要誠(chéng)實(shí)面對(duì)自己所知道的，還要確定那些自認(rèn)為知道的并非虛幻。

2.18子張學(xué)干祿。子曰：“多聞闕疑，慎言其余，則寡尤。多見闕殆，慎行其余，則寡悔。言寡尤，行寡悔，祿在其中矣。”

Zizhang was studying with the hope of obtaining an official position. The Master said, “Use your ears well and widely, and leave out what is suspect; speak with caution about the rest, and you will make few mistakes. Use your eyes well and widely, and stay away from potential perils; act with caution even after the perils are kept at bay, and you will have few regrets. To make few mistakes in your speech and to have few regrets in your action——these are the keys to securing a career as a salaried official.”

子張機(jī)敏有口才，是年輕弟子中反應(yīng)最敏捷的。他的同門認(rèn)為他自大，即便如此，也承認(rèn)子張“難能也”。子張會(huì)提出犀利的問題。事實(shí)上，孔子關(guān)于人性和道德修養(yǎng)最精辟的一些見解，都出自他和子張的對(duì)話。此處的論點(diǎn)似乎更為實(shí)際：子張想要做官，尋求建議，孔子教給他一些專業(yè)的竅門。然而幾個(gè)世紀(jì)以來(lái)，學(xué)者們喜歡為孔子的回答添上道德色彩。比如鄭玄就說(shuō)，“言行如此，雖不得祿，亦同得祿之道”。劉寶楠也引鄭玄的評(píng)注：“古者鄉(xiāng)舉里選之法，皆擇士之有賢行學(xué)業(yè)而以舉而用之，故寡尤寡悔即是得祿之道?！钡呵飼r(shí)期推舉制基本被廢止。貴族世家獨(dú)占政府機(jī)構(gòu)。有才能的人隱居起來(lái)，大多數(shù)絕緣于仕途。因此鄭玄認(rèn)為，“寡尤、寡悔”，雖無(wú)由得祿，但也相當(dāng)于古人所說(shuō)的得祿之道了。

2.19 哀公問曰：“何為則民服？”孔子對(duì)曰：“舉直錯(cuò)諸枉，則民服；舉枉錯(cuò)諸直，則民不服?！?/p>

Duke Ai asked, “What should I do to make the common people come under my sway?”

Confucius replied, “Promote the upright and place them above the crooked, and the people will be in awe of you and come under your sway [服]. The opposite will happen if you promote the crooked and place them above the upright.”

哀公即公元前484年邀請(qǐng)孔子回魯國(guó)的魯哀公。他在位的時(shí)間是公元前494至前466年，但當(dāng)時(shí)魯國(guó)軍政幾乎都在貴族世家的把持之下，哀公并無(wú)威信和實(shí)權(quán)。因此，劉寶楠等學(xué)者將2.19中的對(duì)話放入歷史環(huán)境，認(rèn)為哀公是在向孔子求教，如何從魯國(guó)三桓那里奪回權(quán)力。對(duì)這位國(guó)君，孔子的回答是德行的力量：把正直的人置于邪曲的人之上，人民自然就歸順于你，無(wú)需強(qiáng)迫。大多數(shù)英文譯者將“服”理解為“服從”（to submit）。傳統(tǒng)經(jīng)典注疏對(duì)“服”的解釋是：人民因“信服”而“敬服”君王而“為之任使”。因此，我將“服”譯為“to come under the sway of”，與12.19中孔子對(duì)季康子的回答一致。

2.20 季康子問：“使民敬忠以勸，如之何？”子曰：“臨之以莊則敬。孝慈則忠。舉善而教不能則勸?！?/p>

Ji Kangzi asked, “How can I get the common people to be respectful, to do their best, and to encourage each other to strive forward?”

The Master said, “Oversee the people with dignity, and the people will be respectful. Honor the elderly, cherish the young,and the people will do their best. Acknowledge the good, teach the incompetent, and the people will encourage each other to strive forward.”

季康子是季孫氏的宗主，魯哀公的正卿。孔子結(jié)束周游回到魯國(guó)時(shí)，他是當(dāng)時(shí)魯國(guó)權(quán)力最大的政治人物?？鬃拥脑S多弟子，特別是冉求和樊遲，就是季孫氏家臣。雖然孔子有時(shí)將季康子視作政敵，但當(dāng)季康子問政于他時(shí)，他沒有拒絕?？鬃訉?duì)季康子說(shuō)的話和對(duì)哀公說(shuō)的差不多：如果你培養(yǎng)自己的德行，負(fù)起道德責(zé)任，人民就會(huì)效法你的作為。

2.21 或謂孔子曰：“子奚不為政？”子曰：“《書》云：‘孝乎惟孝，友于兄弟，施于有政。’是亦為政，奚其為為政？”

Someone said to Confucius, “Why do you not take part in government?” The Master said, “The Book of Documents says,‘Filial, only be filial, and a friend to your older and younger brothers——this has an influence on the way of government.’ To do this is to take part in government. Why must I take on a position in order ‘to take part in government’?”

漢代《白虎通》記載：“孔子之對(duì)或人，蓋在哀公十一年后也?！币簿褪钦f(shuō)這段對(duì)話發(fā)生在孔子回到魯國(guó)之后。劉寶楠同意這個(gè)說(shuō)法，說(shuō)孔子返魯后，“且亦與聞國(guó)政，但不出仕居位而為之”。這就是有人問孔子為何不出仕的緣由。《左傳》載，孔子回魯國(guó)時(shí)被尊為“國(guó)老”。魯國(guó)國(guó)君哀公和大夫季康子都向他尋求建議，但他已經(jīng)無(wú)意從政。劉寶楠還提出，2.21的對(duì)話緊隨2.19中孔子與哀公、2.20中與季康子的談話，并非巧合。

2.22 子曰：“人而無(wú)信，不知其可也。大車無(wú)，小車無(wú)，其何以行之哉？”

The Master said, “If a person does not have the trust of others, I don’t see how he can get anywhere. A large cart without a linchpin in its yoke bar and a small cart without a linchpin in its collar bar——how can you get them to go anywhere?”

不論是牛拉的大車還是馬拉的小車，若無(wú)輗或軏這樣的關(guān)鍵部位，車子也就無(wú)法前行。人若失信，亦是如此。所以顧夢(mèng)麟說(shuō)：“已失其所以行之具矣。”

2.23 子張問：“十世可知也？”子曰：“殷因于夏禮，所損益可知也。周因于殷禮，所損益可知也。其或繼周者，雖百世可知也。”

Zizhang asked, “Can we know what things will be like ten generations from now?”

The Master said, “The Yin followed the rites of the Xia, and what was added and subtracted can be known. The Zhou followed the rites of the Yin, and what was added and subtracted can be known. Whoever succeeds the Zhou, even a hundred generations from now, will be able to know [what was added and subtracted from the rites of the Zhou].”

最后一句話的另一種譯法可以是：“Whoever succeeds the Zhou,we are able to know what things will be like even a hundred generations from now.”兩種解讀反映了爭(zhēng)論的兩面：孔子是在強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)去的重要，還是說(shuō)未來(lái)是可預(yù)測(cè)的？宋代學(xué)者胡安國(guó)和清代學(xué)者陳澧傾向于第一種解讀，而多數(shù)漢代學(xué)者則認(rèn)可第二種。胡安國(guó)說(shuō)，孔子意不在回答子張預(yù)測(cè)未來(lái)的問題，因?yàn)榭鬃訉?duì)過(guò)去更感興趣。我以為，這和我們從《論語(yǔ)》中看到的孔子——以歷史來(lái)闡釋自己學(xué)說(shuō)的形象相吻合。這也和漢代司馬遷對(duì)這段話的理解一致，他在《史記·孔子世家》中寫道：“孔子……追跡三代之禮……編次其事……觀殷夏所損益……曰‘后雖百世可知也’?！边@當(dāng)然是史學(xué)家的解讀，但我支持這種觀點(diǎn)。

盡管歷代學(xué)者對(duì)本段最后一句話意見不一，但似乎都認(rèn)為孔子對(duì)子張的回答關(guān)乎“常”與“變”?！俺！笔侨穗H關(guān)系的準(zhǔn)則——比如仁、義——都以“禮”系之，需要“禮”的支撐和充實(shí)?！白儭敝傅氖嵌Y器、服飾、度量衡、次要的準(zhǔn)則與規(guī)定——這些都會(huì)隨著實(shí)際考量和習(xí)俗變遷而變化?？鬃釉?.3中的觀點(diǎn)就可以例證。

2.24 子曰：“非其鬼而祭之，諂也。見義不為，無(wú)勇也。”

The Master said, “To offer sacrifice to spirits who are not your ancestors is ingratiating. Faced with what is right yet doing nothing about it shows a lack of courage.”

漢代學(xué)者質(zhì)疑“非其鬼而祭之”者的意圖。鄭玄寫道：“人身曰鬼。非其祖考而祭之者，是諂求福?！焙涡菡J(rèn)為，這種行為“非禮”，而且“亦必不能獲福”。劉寶楠引3.6為例，指出季孫氏只是大夫而祭祀泰山是僭越諂媚，冉求明知非禮卻不去阻止，是懦弱的行為。